Ukuzwela kwezilwane ngokombono wefilosofi: ukusuka ku-ontology kuya kuzimiso zokuziphatha

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Kusukela ezikhathini zasendulo, umbuzo wokuthi izilwane zizizwa yini nokuthi lokhu kusho ukuthini ngokuziphatha kwethu uye wangena emlandweni wefilosofi. Ngobubanzi, kugxilwe kuye kwashintshashintsha phakathi kwezinkulumo-mpikiswano ze-ontological mayelana nesimo somuzwa kanye nezingxoxo zokuziphatha mayelana nesisindo sokuhlupheka uma kuqhathaniswa nezinye izimpawu zesithunzi, njengokuhluzeka kwengqondo. Eminyakeni engu-150 edlule, inzalo ishintshe kakhulu kuzimiso zokuziphatha, ukulimala okukhethekile kanye nenhlalakahle ngaphezu kwezigaba zakudala. Namuhla intambo evamile icacile: uma kukhona amandla okuzizwa, kunezizathu zokuthi ukucabangela ukuziphatha.

Bekungenjalo njalo. Ingxenye enkulu yohlu lwefilosofi yaseNtshonalanga yanciphisa noma yahumusha kabusha isipiliyoni sezilwane ngezindlela ezithethelela ukusetshenziswa nokubusa kwaso. Izibalo ezihamba phambili kusukela ku-Plato kuya e-Descartes kuya e-Kant zanikeza izimpikiswano, ezinye ze-metaphysical nezinye ezijwayelekile, ezibeka abantu phakathi nendawo. Nokho, impikiswano yangaleso sikhathi isishintshile: sikhuluma ngezinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo, amalungelo, kanye nenhlalakahle, sivuselela imibono yendaba yokuphila, futhi sigxeka ukungazi ngamabomu okwenza okungabekezeleleki. Phakathi kokugxekwa kwefilosofi nokucindezela komphakathi, kuvela umqondo onamandla: ukuhlanganisa ezinye izilwane emkhakheni wokuziphatha kanye nomthetho omuhle..

Sisho ukuthini ngokuzwela kwezilwane nokuthi kungani kubalulekile

Ngamagama alula, ukuzwela kwezilwane kusho amandla okuthola injabulo nobuhlungu, ukwesaba, ukukhululeka, injabulo, noma okunye okuhlangenwe nakho okuqondayo. Lona akuwona nje umbuzo wethiyori: kusukela ekuqashelweni kwalesi sikhundla kulandela, ngobuningi bezimiso zokuziphatha zanamuhla, isibopho sokuzithatha ngokungathi sína. Umbuzo oyisisekelo wakhiwe ngokusemthethweni ngomugqa osuka e-Bentham uye ezingxoxweni zamanje: akuwona umbuzo ongaka wokuthi uma bengabonisana, kodwa ukuthi bangahlupheka yini. Lapho umuntu ehlupheka, ukuhlupheka kwakhe kubalwa ngokokuziphatha.

Nokho, ubuhlungu nokuhlupheka akufani. Kubantu, isipiliyoni sivezwa ngokolimi kanye nokuba yinkimbinkimbi ngokulindela izinkinga ezizayo; ezilwaneni ezincelisayo eziningi ezingezona abantu, isipiliyoni singaba ngokungakhethi lapho sibhekene nezinsongo, ukuze ukwethuka kwazo kushube nakakhulu ezimweni ezithile. Ukungabi nalo ulimi olukhulumayo akusho ukungahlupheki., futhi ukungabi bikho kwezimpawu ezisobala akubona ubufakazi bokungazweli.

Nokho, kukhona ukuhleleka okuhlobene nokuba yinkimbinkimbi kwesimiso sezinzwa. Akunangqondo ukubiza isikelemu noma isipontshi izinhlobo zezifo ezifana nesesilwane esincelisayo. Leli phuzu liholele ekuxhumaniseni amalungelo afanelekile noma ukuvikela nokuzwela, ukulungisa ububanzi bezibopho ngokuya ngamakhono azwelayo. Ukuzwela, ngamafuphi, kusebenza njengesici esisebenzayo sokuqondisa imisebenzi.

Ukusuka Emandulo Kuya EbuKristwini: UPythagoras, uPlato kanye Nesiko LeBhayibheli

Umfanekiso kaPythagoras uvame ukubizwa njengophawu lozwelo ezilwaneni, kodwa izizathu zakudala ziyehluka ezingxabano zamanje. I-anecdote edumile eyadluliswa nguDiogenes Laertius, lapho indoda ehlakaniphile imisa inja eshaya indoda ngoba iqaphela izwi lomngane oshonile ekukhaleni kwayo, ibonisa inkolelo ekushintsheni kwemiphefumulo esikhundleni sokuzivikela kwezilwane ngayinye. Ukukhathazeka kuvela, lapho, ngenxa yokwesaba ukulimaza ubuhlakani bomuntu ozelwe kabushaNgaphezu kwalokho, kunobufakazi obuthi ubuza imibuzo ngezinga uPythagoras ayehlala emelene ngalo nokuzidela: kuthiwa uye wagubha ukutholwa kwezibalo ngokunikela ngezinkabi, indaba etholakala ezingxoxweni zezazi zangaleso sikhathi.

Endabeni kaPlato, izinto zishelela nakakhulu. Ukudla kwemifino yase-Athene okucatshangwa ukuthi kunzima ukufakazela ngokomlando, futhi ngisho nokukunikeza, izisekelo zayo zefilosofi azihumushi emisebenzini ebhekiswe kubantu abangewona abantu. UPlato ucabanga a Inkathi yegolide lapho ukudliwa kwezilwane bekungeke kudingeke, kodwa umhlaba wethu awukona okwaleso sigaba senganekwane; ngakho-ke, umbuso onjalo ubungeke udingeke ngaphansi kwezimo ezijwayelekile. Okubaluleke nakakhulu, ivikela ukuphakama komphefumulo womuntu, ongafi futhi unengqondo, futhi ngaleyo ndlela ivumela ukusetshenziswa kwezilwane ngezinjongo zomuntu. Umbono kaPlato awugxili ezibophweni zokuziphatha kwezinye izinhlobo zezilwane..

Umshicilelo wale mibono uvela futhi kubabhali abangamaKristu abakha iNkathi Ephakathi. UGenesise uveza inkathi yokuqala yokuzwana phakathi kwabantu nezilwane, kodwa ngemva kukaZamcolo, uNowa nenzalo yakhe banikezwa imvume ecacile yokuqothula zonke izinto eziphilayo. Lo mugqa, ocatshangelwe ngezindlela eziningi, uholela kubantu abacabangayo abafana no-Augustine noThomas Aquinas, labo, ngezindlela ezihlukene, abasekela ukubusa komuntu okusemthethweni futhi baphike ukuthi kunemisebenzi eqondile yobulungisa ezilwaneni. Kuleli siko, izithakazelo zomuntu kuphela ezisenkabeni yendalo kanye ne-normativity..

Ukuphenduka kwesimanje: I-Descartes kanye nomshini wezilwane

Ngesimanjemanje, kude nokuthamba, igebe liyahlelwa kabusha ngolimi oluhambisana nesayensi entsha. UDescartes, umuntu obalulekile, uphakamise umehluko obukhali phakathi kwama-res cogitans nama-res extensa abeka izilwane eceleni kwemishini. Kuleli phuzu, abantu abangebona abantu bangaba ama-automaton angacabangi, futhi lokhu kuye kwahunyushwa ngokuthi kuhilela ukuphika ubuhlungu nenjabulo. Nakuba ukufunda kwangaleso sikhathi kufaneleka lesi siphetho, okubalulekile ngemiphumela engokoqobo ukuthi, ngaphakathi kombono wakhe, ngeke kube nezizathu ezibambekayo zokubekela imingcele imikhuba efana nokudla izilwane noma i-vivisection yangaleso sikhathi. Isithombe somshini wezilwane sasebenza njenge-alibi yethiyori ukuze kujwayelekile unya..

I-Kant kanye nenani elihlobene lokungacabangi

Uma kukhulunywa ngezimiso zokuziphatha zanamuhla, ambalwa amagama anesisindo esilingana nesikaKant. Nokho, indlela aphatha ngayo izilwane ayikhuthazi ngokombono wanamuhla. Kusazi sefilosofi sase-Königsberg, ukuhluzeka kwengqondo kuyisisekelo sokujwayelekile: kuphela lapho kunesizathu kukhona imisebenzi efanele. Ngakho, izidalwa ezingenangqondo zinenani elilinganiselwe, eliqhathaniswa nelezinto, futhi azizona iziphetho ngokwazo. Naphezu kwalokhu, uKant utusa ukugwema unya, hhayi ngenxa yokuthi izilwane zinamalungelo, kodwa njengomsebenzi ongaqondile kithina: ubudlova obubhekiswe kuzo buthuntubeza ukuthambekela kwethu kokuziphatha kwabanye abantu. Izilwane ezihawukelayo, yebo; baqaphela amalungelo abo, cha: lokho kungumkhawulo waseKantian..

Kusukela ku-speciism kuya ekucabangeni kokuziphatha: ukugxeka kwesimanje kanye neziphakamiso

Ifilosofi yakamuva ihlola ukuchema okuhlukahlukene: uhlobo lwezinhlobo. Igama, elaqanjwa u-Peter Singer futhi lisekelwe emsebenzini wangaphambili ka-Richard D. Ryder, libhekisela ekubandlululweni okusekelwe kuzinhlobo zezilwane, okufana nokucwasa ngokobuhlanga noma ngokobulili. Umnyombo wokugxeka uphethe ukuthi ukunikeza isisindo esikhulu ezithakazelweni zezinhlobo zethu ngoba nje singabakho kuwukucwasa. Induku yokulinganisa kufanele kube ikhono lokuzwa, hhayi ikhadi lezinhlobo..

I-Speciesism iphinde idle inertia yomphakathi. Kusukela ebuntwaneni, isithombe esifakwe ushukela sezwe lezilwane sijwayelekile, lapho abantu abajabulayo "kufanele" bafele ukudla kwethu ngaphandle kokuthi kubhekwe njengokungasoleki. Ubandlululo olukhethekile luyenzeka futhi: izinhlobo eziyizifanekiselo, ezinkulu, noma ezinomusa zivikelwe ngokuzimisela, kuyilapho ukuhlupheka kwalezo ezizwelayo ngokulinganayo noma ngaphezulu azinakwa. Okunezelwa kulokhu yizici ezingokwenkolo nezinkolelo-ze ezilolonga uthando nokudelelwa. Konke lokhu kwephula isimiso sokungakhethi, ngoba lokho okungalungile kumuntu akufanele kuhlotshaniswe lapho isisulu singeyena umuntu..

Kulo mongo, umqondo wokungazi ngamabomu ubalulekile. Abantu abaningi bakhetha ukungazi ukuthi imikhiqizo ethile ifinyelela kanjani ematafuleni ethu noma ukuthi yini eyenziwa ezindaweni ezithile zokucwaninga, ukuze bagweme ukungakhululeki ngokwengqondo. Abezindaba bavame ukufaka isandla kulo mgubuzelo. Lobu bumpumputhe bamabomu, njengoba iziqephu zomlando ezibanzi zibonisa, bulimaza izinga lempilo yentando yeningi. Ukungafuni ukubona akusikhululi emthwalweni wemfanelo, futhi kuvame ukwenza kube kubi nakakhulu..

Manje, singalulungisa kanjani kahle uhlaka lokuziphatha? Ukwakheka okunethonya ezimisweni zokuziphatha zezilwane kuvela kuWilliam Frankena: zonke izidalwa ezikwaziyo ukuzizwisa ngokuphaphile zifanelwe ukucatshangelwa ngokwazo ngokwezinga izenzo zethu ezizithinta ngayo. Lo mbono uxhumene nombandela odumile we-Bentham kanye nezikhundla zesimanje zokusiza. Umkhawulo obalulekile ukuzwela, hhayi ukuhluzeka okuphelele.

Omunye umnikelo obalulekile okaTom Regan, owasungula umbono wendaba yokuphila kumalungelo okubambelela. Umuntu uyisihloko sempilo uma ene-biography enemibono, izifiso, inkumbulo, izintshisekelo, nomuzwa othile wekusasa. Kusukela kulo mbono, u-Regan uthi izihloko ezinjalo zinamalungelo angancikile ekubuyiseleni kwemisebenzi noma ukuba kwawo ohlotsheni lwabantu, nakuba ecacisa ububanzi: enguqulweni yayo yasekuqaleni, isigaba sisebenza ngokuyinhloko ezilwaneni ezincelisayo futhi, ngokuqinile, ezilwaneni ezincelisayo zeminyaka ethile. Umbono oyisisekelo uphonsela inselelo umbono we-Rawlsian wokuthi awekho amalungelo ngaphandle kwemisebenzi, futhi uthintana nombono wezintshisakalo ezivikelwa u-Joel Feinberg..

Eceleni kwalokhu, u-Christine M. Korsgaard uwuhlele kabusha lo mbuzo ngokombono wokuzibusa nokujwayelekile okusebenzayo, ethi imithombo yethu yesibopho isibophezela kwezinye izilwane. Lezi zikhundla zihambisana nenkulumompikiswano yetemino nezomthetho: ukukhuluma ngamalungelo kungabhekisela kumalungelo okuziphatha noma amalungelo omthetho, anezimo ezihlukile, futhi akuyona into encane ukuthi imfene ibizwa ngokuthi amalungelo abantu noma amalungelo njengemfene. Ilebula ibalulekile ngaphansi kokuqashelwa ukuthi abayona nje indlela.

Kuyafaneleka futhi ukuhlukanisa phakathi kwabakhulumeli bamalungelo ezilwane kanye nabakhulumeli bezenhlalakahle yezilwane. Okwangaphambili, kokuthonya kokuqeda nya, kufuna ukuqeda ukuxhashazwa kwezilwane njengamathuluzi, kuncike kuzo zombili izimpikiswano ze-deontological kanye ne-utilitarian. I-Welfarism, ngakolunye uhlangothi, iyisimo sokulwela izinguquko esikhuthaza ukunciphisa ukuhlupheka okubonakala kungenasidingo, sivuma ukuthi ukulimala kungase kubhekwe njengokuwusizo ezimweni ezithile. Kusukela ngo-1979, lo mkhakha wokucabanga uveze uhlaka oludumile: izinkululeko ezinhlanu, ezithuthukiswe ngomsebenzi weBritish Farm Animal Welfare Council, ezisebenza ngokomgomo kuzo zonke izilwane ezingaphansi kwesibopho somuntu. Inhlalakahle ichazwa kabi ngokungabikho kobubi futhi kahle ngokuvumela ukuziphatha kwemvelo..

1. Ngaphandle kwendlala noma ukoma: ukufinyelela okuqhubekayo kokudla namanzi okwanele.
2. Ngaphandle kokuphatheka kabi: izimo ezifanele zemvelo nendawo yokuhlala.
3. Okungenabuhlungu: ukuvimbela kanye nokukhululeka kokuhlupheka okungagwemeka.
4. Ngaphandle kwamanxeba noma izifo: ukunakekelwa kwezempilo kanye nokuvimbela.
5. Ngaphandle kokwesaba noma ukucindezeleka: ukuphatha okwehlisa ukwethuka nokukhathazeka; kanye nenkululeko eyakhayo yokuveza ukuziphatha okufanele kwezinhlobo zezilwane.

I-Phenomenology kanye ne-deconstruction: u-Levinas no-Derrida kwezinye izilwane

Esikweni le-phenomenological kanye nokuhlaziya kwayo, ubudlelwano nokunye buhlolisisiwe kusuka kuma-engeli athinta ngqo umbuzo wesilwane. U-Levinas ugxeke ubukhulu besimo sengqondo sethiyori, lokho kubuka okwehlisa okunye kube okufanayo futhi kubeke ngaphansi kokunye ukubusa kwesihloko. Ngokuphambene, uchaze ubuhlobo bokuziphatha bokuqala lapho omunye ebonakala enobuso obusiphoqayo. Okugqamayo, ngezinhloso zethu, ukuthi lokhu okunye kuzibonakalisa phambi kukanembeza njengokuzwela kakhulu..

U-Derrida uthatha futhi welula leli fa. Ngakolunye uhlangothi, ususa ukuzithoba kwesimanje ngokudalula okungafakwanga kukho; ngakolunye, uyabuza ukuthi igama elithi "umuntu" liwuhlukanisa ngokwanele yini umkhakha wokunye. Ngokokugxeka kwakhe, ubuntu bukaLevinas busengozini yokungabandakanyi, ngokwencazelo, izilwane ezingezona ezomuntu. Ngakho-ke, isiphakamiso sikaDerrida siwukucabanga ngobulwane njengento engaphansi evamile yazo zonke ezinye izinto, ukuguqula umngcele ohlukanisa umuntu nomuntu ongeyena umuntu. Okunye akuyona impahla yabantu kuphela; ukuzwela kwezilwane kudlula lowo mkhawulo..

Phakathi kokuzwela kanye nomthetho: izinqubo zomphakathi, ukusetshenziswa kanye noshintsho lwesikhungo

Akekho osamangazwa ukucasuka okubangelwa izithombe zobudlova ezilwaneni; kodwa, siphila nezinhlelo zokukhiqiza eziphindaphinda ukuhlupheka nokufa ngezigidi. Le ndida ichazwa ngokwengxenye igebe phakathi kwalokho esikubheka njengokulungile kanye nemikhuba yethu, ngesakhiwo sokukhuthaza esenza kube lula ngathi ukubheka ngenye indlela, kanye ne-inertia yomlando ethatha isikhathi ukuyilungisa. IPsychology, isayensi yezokuhlalisana kwabantu, kanye nomlando kusisiza ukuthi siqonde ukunensa okushintsha ngakho izinqubo ezihlangene. Ukungezwani phakathi kwezinkolelo zokuziphatha kanye imikhuba yabathengi Ingokoqobo njengoba ingakhululekile.

Ngakho, amazwi amaningi aphikelela esinyathelweni esiwujuqu: ukuhumusha izibopho zokuziphatha zibe ezinkambisweni ezingokomthetho nokuziphoqelela ngokuphumelelayo. Ukuzwela komphakathi akwanele; ukuqashelwa kwesikhungo kuyadingeka ukuze kuvikelwe amazinga amancane okwelashwa kanye nokunciphisa ukuhlupheka. Kungakhathaliseki ukuthi ngokombono wamalungelo noma amazinga aqinile enhlalakahle, inselele ebonakalayo isekuklameni imithetho, ukuyigada, kanye nokujezisa ukungathobeli. Uma umthetho ugqamisa ukucatshangelwa kokuziphatha, ukuthuthukiswa kuyeka ukuncika ekuthandeni komuntu ngamunye..

Imisebenzi esemqoka nezinkomba

• Ku-Cartesianism nezilwane: ukuhlaziywa kwesikhashana kwethesis yomshini wezilwane, nemisebenzi efana naleyo Peter Harrison ezibuyekeza izincazelo kanye nemiphumela engokoqobo.
• Isiko lasendulo: ubufakazi mayelana UDiogenes Laertius kanye nokufundwa kwakamuva kwePythagoreanism (isb., ku-Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy), kanye nezinkulumo mpikiswano mayelana nokudla imifino Plato kanye nokuhambisana kwayo okungokwemfundiso.
• Izimiso zokuziphatha zamanje: Peter Singer kanye nokugxeka kwakhe kwezinhlobo zezilwane eNkululekweni Yezilwane; UChristine M. Korsgaard kanye nesisekelo sezibopho zethu kwezinye izilwane Ezidalweni Esikanye Nazo.
• Amalungelo asekelwe esihlokweni sempilo: isiphakamiso se UTom Regan, engxoxweni nombono wezithakazelo ze UJoel Feinberg kanye nokuphikisa kukaRawlsian mayelana namalungelo nemisebenzi.
• Uhlaka lwebhayibheli nemfundiso yenkolo: iziqephu ezivela ku UGenesise eyazisa ukufundwa esizindeni somuntu, kanye nokwamukelwa kwayo Agustin y UThomas Aquinas.

I-panorama evela kulolu hambo icacile: kusukela ekuchazeni kwasendulo nenkathi ephakathi okwakuthethelela isizinda ngaphandle kwezibopho eziqondile, ngokusebenzisa ubuhlakani besimanje obusebenzisa ibanga, kuya kufilosofi yesimanje yokuziphatha ukuhlupheka futhi i ukuqonda Esikhungweni, inkulumo-mpikiswano ibilokhu icwenga ikhampasi yayo. Namuhla, sinemiqondo ebucayi efana nezinhlobo zezinto eziphilayo, imibandela efana nendaba yokuphila, nezinhlaka ezisebenzayo ezifana nezinkululeko ezinhlanu; futhi sinokuhlola okujulile kokunye okungabaza ukuhluka kwabantu. Konke lokhu kukhomba emsebenzini ohlanganyelwe: ukunciphisa ubuhlungu obungagwemeka, ukuqaphela ezinye izilwane njengabamukeli bezibopho zethu, nokuguqula lokhu kuqiniseka kube imikhuba nemithetho evumelana nalokho esizisholo ukuthi siyakwazisa. Akukhona nje ukucabanga kangcono, kodwa ngokuphila ngokuvumelana nalokho kucabanga okungcono..