Isiko lamaCeltiberia: indawo, abantu kanye nokuphila kwansuku zonke

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La Isiko lamaCeltiberia Ingenye yezahluko ezithakazelisa kakhulu zomlando we-Protohistory we-Iberian Peninsula. Enhliziyweni yeMeseta esempumalanga, phakathi kwamathafa aphezulu, izigodi ezijulile, kanye nezintaba eziqinile, iqembu labantu lachuma, lihlanganisa amasiko amaCeltic nama-Iberia, futhi ekugcineni laba ngabalingisi abaphambili kwezinye zezimpi ezikhumbuleka kakhulu zase-Antiquity, njengokumelana kukaNumantia neRoma.

Namuhla singakha kabusha ngemininingwane eminingi impilo yansuku zonke, inhlangano yomphakathi, inkolo, umnotho, ukuhlela amadolobha, kanye nokuguquka komlando Ukuqonda kwethu laba bantu kuvela ekuhlanganisweni kwemithombo yasendulo, i-epigraphy, izilimi, futhi, ngaphezu kwakho konke, i-archaeology. Kuyo yonke le ndatshana, sizohlola, ngokuthula kodwa ngaphandle kokulahleka ezintweni zobuchwepheshe ezingadingekile, konke esikwaziyo ngesiko lamaCeltiberia: kusukela emvelaphi yalo kanye nezigaba zokulandelana kwezikhathi kuya emadolobheni alo, onkulunkulu balo, amasiko alo omngcwabo, kanye nendima yalo ekunqobeni kwamaRoma.

Babengobani amaCeltiberian futhi babehlala kuphi?

Leli gama Igama elithi “Celtiberian” akulona igama lendabukoKunalokho, ilebula elakhiwe abalobi bamaGreki namaRoma ukuchaza abantu abathile bangaphakathi kwenhlonhlo ababenezimpawu eziphawulekayo zamaCeltic kodwa behlala ndawonye futhi bexubene nabantu base-Iberia. UDiodorus, u-Appian, noMartial bavikela umqondo weqembu "elixubile" (amaCelts + ama-Iberia), kanti uStrabo wagcizelela ngaphezu kwakho konke ingxenye yamaCeltic, into ehambisana kahle nobufakazi bezilimi kanye nobemivubukulo obutholakalayo.

Imithombo yasendulo eyinhloko iyavumelana ngokubeka ICeltiberia ezindaweni eziphakeme zasePlateau empumalanga kanye nosebe lwesokudla lwesigodi esiphakathi sase-Ebro. Ngokubanzi, lokhu kwakuhilela isifundazwe sanamuhla saseSoria, ingxenye enkulu yeGuadalajara neCuenca, ingxenye esempumalanga yeSegovia, iBurgos eseningizimu neLa Rioja, kanye neZaragoza entshonalanga neTeruel, kwaze kwafika enyakatho-ntshonalanga yeValencia. Kwakungeyona indawo enemingcele eqinile; imingcele yashintsha ngokuhamba kwesikhathi ngokwezinguquko zezepolitiki, ezempi, kanye nezokuphatha.

Phakathi kwamadolobha amaRoma ayewabheka njengezimpawu zomngcele, okulandelayo kuyaphawuleka: I-Segobriga, eCuenca, ebizwa ngokuthi i-caput Celtiberiae; clunia, ngesiBurgos, okuhlukaniswe ngokuthi I-Celtiberiae finis; o I-Contrebia Leukade, eLa Rioja, echazwe ngokuthi i-caput eius gentisLa magama asitshela kokubili ngokubaluleka kwalezi zikhungo kanye nokuguquguquka kwemingcele yaseCeltiberian.

Imithombo kanye nocwaningo lwanamuhla ngokuvamile lubheka amaCeltiberiya "njengabaphelele" I-Arevaci, i-Belos, i-Titos, i-Lusones ne-PelendonesNgenkathi abanye abantu abanjengoVaccaei, Carpetani, Olcades, noma ngisho namaLobetani bafakiwe noma bakhishwa ngokwemigomo yombhali ngamunye. Ngakho-ke, kwakungekho "uhlu oluvaliwe" olulodwa lwabantu baseCeltiberian, kodwa kunalokho kwakuyiqiniso eliguquguqukayo lobuhlanga nezepolitiki.

Ukwakheka Komlando Kwesiko LaseCeltiberia

Umbuzo wokuthi kanjani ngempela Isiko lamaCeltiberia Kuye kwadala impikiswano ejulile kusukela ekuqaleni kwekhulu lama-20. Sekungamashumi eminyaka, umqondo wokuhlasela okulandelanayo kwamaCelt avela eYurophu Ephakathi, okuhlotshaniswa nezindawo ezifana ne-Urnfield noma i-Hallstatt, ezazizozibophezela kubantu bendawo, wawuthandwa kakhulu.

UPedro Bosch Gimpera wayengomunye wabasekeli abakhulu bale ndlela "yokuhlasela", ehlanganisa imibhalo yakudala, i-philology, kanye ne-archaeology ukuze kuphakanyiswe amagagasi amaningana okufuduka. Nokho, ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, idatha ye-archaeological ikhombisile ukuthi Leyo modeli yokuhlasela okukhulu ayihambisani kahle nalokho okwatholakala e-Eastern PlateauAkukho ukuhlukana okungazelelwe kokuxazululwa noma ukushintshwa okuphelele kwesiko lezinto ezibonakalayo ukuze kusekelwe.

Izazi zolimi zaqhubeka isikhathi eside nomqondo weminikelo yangaphandle yamaCeltic, zihlukanisa ulimi okwakuthiwa lukhona ngaphambi kwamaCeltic (isiLusitania, mhlawumbe ulimi lwesiCeltic kwabanye) futhi, ngaphezu kwakho konke, IsiCeltiberian njengolimi lwesiCeltic olucacile. Kodwa, futhi, ukuhlangana okunzima phakathi kwezinqubo zolimi kanye namarekhodi emivubukulo kusiphoqe ukuba siqaphele kakhulu.

Enye indlela enethonya elikhulu, ekhuthazwa yi-Almagro-Gorbea nabanye abacwaningi, iphakamisa ukuthi Imvelaphi yamaCelt aseHispanic ayinakuxhunyaniswa kuphela nama-Urnfield kusukela enyakatho-mpumalanga—indawo, ngeshwa, lapho kwakukhulunywa khona ulimi lwase-Iberia—kodwa kunalokho kufanele sibheke ingxenye encane “ye-proto-Celtic” egxile ezifundeni zasentshonalanga, okwathi ngesikhathi sokuguquka kusukela eNkathini Yethusi Yasekupheleni kuya eNkathini Yensimbi kwasakazekela eMeseta Central. Kusukela kulesi sizinda se-proto-Celtic, isiko lamaCeltiberia lalizovela, lihlanganise futhi lihlele kabusha lesi sisekelo esasikhona ngaphambilini.

Kulesi simo, lokho okubizwa ngokuthi Ukwakhiwa kweNhlonhlo yase-Iberia Kuqondwa njengento eyinkimbinkimbi nehlala isikhathi eside, ethonywa ukuxhumana, ukushintshana, ukunyakaza kwabantu abambalwa, kanye nezinqubo zangaphakathi ze-ethnogenesis, kunokuba kube ukuhlasela okukodwa okuqondile. AmaCeltiberian angaba umphumela obonakala kakhulu wale nqubo empumalanga yeMeseta Central.

Izigaba zokulandelana kwezikhathi: kusukela ku-proto-Celtiberian kuya ku-Celtiberian yasekupheleni

Imivubukulo iye yenza kwaba nokwenzeka ukusungula ukulandelana kwamasiko okucacile endaweni yaseCeltiberian phakathi kwekhulu lesi-8/700 kanye nekhulu loku-1 BC. Cishe izigaba ezine ezinkulu zingahlukaniswa, okungezona izingxenye ezingangeni manzi, kodwa ezisiza ekuhleleni ulwazi:

• I-Proto-Celtiberian (cishe ngekhulu lesi-8/lesi-6 - maphakathi nekhulu lesi-6 BC)
• I-Celtiberian yasendulo (phakathi kwekhulu lesi-6 - phakathi nekhulu lesi-5 BC)
• I-Celtiberian Egcwele (phakathi no-5 - ngasekupheleni kwekhulu lesi-3 BC)
• UmCeltiberian Wasekupheleni (ekupheleni kwekhulu lesi-3 kuya kweloku-1 BC)

Kuwo wonke lohambo, umuntu angabonga ukuqhubeka okungavamile kwesivumelwano...ngamasu nezindlela zokuphila, kangangokuthi abacwaningi abaningi abanqikazi ukusebenzisa igama elithi "Celtiberian" ukuchaza uhlelo lwamasiko oluchazwe kahle phakathi kwekhulu lesi-6 BC kanye nokuguqulelwa kwesiRomani ngokugcwele, yize imibhalo yamaGreki nesiLatini iqala ukukhuluma ngokucacile "ngamaCeltiberian" ekupheleni kwekhulu lesi-3 BC.

I-Proto-Celtiberian: "izikhathi zobumnyama" ze-Early Iron

Ukuqala kweNkathi Yensimbi empumalanga yeMeseta, cishe ngekhulu lesi-8 kuya kwelesi-7 BC, kuye kwachazwa njengeqiniso “Izikhathi Zobumnyama” ngenxa yokuntuleka kwemiphumela kanye nobunzima bokulandelela izinguquko. Nokho, yisikhathi esibalulekile, ngoba yilapho isiteji silungiselelwe ukuvela kamuva kwemiphakathi yamaCeltiberian ebonakala ngokugcwele.

Phakathi nalesi sikhathi, kwenzeka ushintsho oluvela emasikweni Izintamo Iuphawu lwethafa leNkathi Yethusi Yasekupheleni, oluya ezindaweni ezintsha ezixhumene ne Ama-Urnfield kusukela esigodini sase-Ebro. Ukuqhubeka kubonakala emasikweni athile obumba kanye nokuhlala kwabantu, kodwa futhi nokuvela kwezinhlobo ezintsha: ama-urn amabili anemifantu, ama-fibulae ajikelezayo, futhi ngaphezu kwakho konke, isiko lokushiswa kwesidumbu, okuzogcina sekuhlukile ezweni lamaCeltiberian.

Amadiphozithi afana nalawa Umthombo Wezigxobo (Embid, Guadalajara) noma I-Los Quintanares (Escobosa de Calatañazor, eSoria) zibonisa izindawo zokuhlala ezincane, ezinamaqhugwane abuthakathaka kanye nezinto zobumba ezihlanganisa izici ze-Urnfields zakamuva kanye nokusinda kweCogotas I. Ukuqhathaniswa kwe-radiocarbon cishe ngo-800 BC kanye nokufana ne-Ebro ephakathi kubonisa ukuxhumana okukhulu phakathi kweMeseta kanye nesigodi sase-Ebro kakade kulezi khulu leminyaka zokuqala.

E-Upper Duero nasezindaweni eziseduze, okulandelayo kuyatholwa izinto zobumba ezine-affinities ezicacile ze-Ebro emazingeni asukela ekhulwini lesi-7 nelesi-6 BC, kanye nemisebenzi yakuqala ezindaweni ezazizoba yisihluthulelo kamuva, njenge-El Castillejo de Fuensaúco (Soria), enezindlu eziqoshwe edwaleni kanye nezitsha ezilula. Konke lokhu kukhomba esigabeni sangaphambi kokuvela kwamathuna "akudala" okushiswa kanye nezinqaba zamagquma eziqinisiwe zesikhathi sokuqala samaCeltiberian.

I-Celtiberian yasekuqaleni: ukuqala kwezindawo zokungcwaba kanye nezinqaba zamagquma

Cishe ngekhulu lesi-6 BC, kwenzeka igxathu elibalulekile: amadolobha asanda kwakhiwa asezikhundleni eziphakemeLezi zindawo zokuhlala, ngokuvamile ezinezivikelo zemvelo eziqinile kanye nezindonga, zabona ukuvela kwamathuna okuqala amakhulu okushiswa kwezidumbu ethafeni elisempumalanga. Amanye ala mathuna aqhubeka esetshenziswa kwaze kwaba sekhulwini lesibili BC noma ngisho nakamuva.

Imibukiso yezindawo zokufa amathuna aqondile, aphawulwe ngamatsheAmathuna ayehlelwe emigwaqweni noma emigqeni. Izimpahla zamathuna zembula umphakathi ogcwele impi, lapho izikhali (ikakhulukazi izingxenyana zemikhonto emide nemimese egobile) zaziyizimpawu zesikhundla. Okwamanje, ukungabikho kwezinkemba emathuneni amaningi kusabonakala, into eyayizoshintsha phakathi nenkathi yakamuva.

Kuqala ukuvela okukodwa ubuholi bezenhlalo obusekelwe ezinhlotsheni zamaqhawe, mhlawumbe isekelwa yizakhiwo zabezizwe (imindeni noma ubumnene), lapho udumo ludluliselwa khona ngefa. Labo abalawula izindawo zokudla, izindawo ezifuywayo ezinosawoti—eziningi kakhulu esifundeni futhi ezibalulekile emfuyweni—kanye nemithombo yensimbi yoHlelo lwase-Iberia igxila emandleni ezomnotho nawezempi.

Ngokuphathelene namathonya angaphandle, izimpahla zethuna zifaka phakathi izinto ezinemvelaphi ecacile yaseningizimu neyaseMedithera (ama-fibulae entwasahlobo ephindwe kabili, amabhande ebhande amaningi, amathuluzi ensimbi okuqala, njll.), ngaphezu kwezinto ezixhuma ngqo ne I-Northeastern Urnfields (izitsha ezinephrofayili ezihlukile, izinto zobumba ezineziphetho ezithile). Isiko lokushiswa kwesidumbu kanye nezinhlobo ezithile zezindawo zokuhlala zingahlotshaniswa nalelo zwe le-Ebro, yize zivumelaniswe neqiniso elithile eliyithafa.

Isikhathi esigcwele samaCeltiberian: amaqhawe asebukhosini kanye nokwanda kwangaphakathi

Kusukela ngekhulu lesi-5 BC kuqhubeke singena esigabeni esivame ukubizwa ngokuthi I-Celtiberian EgcweleLesi yisikhathi lapho umehluko wesifunda ngaphakathi kweCeltiberia ubonakala khona ngokusobala, ezimweni eziningi ezihambisana ne- populi ecashunwe yimithombo yakudala (i-Arevaci, i-Belos, i-Lusones, njll.).

Ama-necropolises alesi sikhathi abonisa umphakathi osuvele uhlukaniswe kakhuluAmathuna ahloniphekile avela enezinkemba eziphelele (izinkemba ze-antenna kanye ne-pedimented, imikhonto emikhulu enezimbobo zayo, izihlangu ezinezinhloko zensimbi, izigqoko zokuvikela izifuba kanye nezivikelo zesifuba zethusi), izibambo zamahhashi kanye nobumba olujikijelwe ngamasondo, okusobala ukuthi luvela endaweni yase-Iberia noma olukhiqizwe endaweni kulingisa lawo mamodeli.

Indawo ye I-Alto Henares-Alto Tajuña kanye nendawo eseningizimu yeSoria Yaba yindawo yokuqala yokuceba ngenxa yokulawula kwayo imizila ephakathi koMfula i-Ebro kanye neMeseta Central, izindawo zayo ezifuywayo ezinosawoti, kanye nezindawo zayo ezinhle zemfuyo. Izindawo zokugcina imfuyo ezifana ne-Aguilar de Anguita (Guadalajara) noma i-Alpanseque (Soria) ziyizibonelo zakudala: amathuna abo, ahlelwe emigwaqweni yama-stelae, abonisa umehluko omkhulu phakathi kweqembu elincane lamathuna acebile kakhulu (ngaphansi kuka-1% wenani eliphelele) kanye nenani elikhulu lamathuna anempahla yamathuna ephansi noma engekho.

Kusukela ekupheleni kwekhulu lesi-5 kanye nangekhulu lesi-4 BC, i- ukushintsha kwesikhungo samandla adonsela phansi siye e-Upper Dourolapho iqembu lama-Arevaci lahlangana khona. Amathuna afana neLa Mercadera noma i-Ucero abonisa amaphesenti aphezulu kakhulu amathuna anezikhali (cishe afinyelele engxenyeni kwezinye izimo), ngokungafani nezinye izindawo lapho izikhali zanyamalala khona cishe empahleni yamathuna kusukela ngekhulu lesi-4 BC kuqhubeke, njengezindawo eziningana zokungcwaba eTajuña basin noma endaweni yaseMolina de Aragón.

Phakathi nalesi sikhathi, kwenzeka into ethile "Ukuhlanganiswa kwezindawo eziseceleni"Isibonelo, lokho okubizwa ngokuthi "isiko laseSoria hillfort" lasenyakatho yeSoria, ekuqaleni elalihlotshaniswa namasiko ase-Urnfield, kancane kancane kwasondeza indlela yalo yokuphila nezinto zobuciko eduze kwamaphethini aseCeltiberian ase-Upper Duero. Isenzakalo esifanayo senzeka osebeni olungakwesokudla lwesigodi esiphakathi sase-Ebro, esashintsha kancane kancane sisuka esikweni sohlobo lwe-Urnfield lweNkathi Yensimbi saya endaweni ecacile yaseCeltiberian.

I-Celtiberian yasekupheleni: i-oppida, ukubhala kanye nokungqubuzana neRoma

Isigaba sokugcina, phakathi kokuphela kwekhulu lesi-3 nekhulu loku-1 BC, siyisigaba izinguquko zangaphakathi ezijulile, ephawuleka ngokuthintana—nokushayisana ngqo—nezwe lamaRoma. Mhlawumbe isici esibonakala kakhulu ukuthambekela kwendlela yokuphila yasemadolobheni: enkulu i-oppida imizi ebiyelwe esebenza njengenhloko-dolobha yezindawo ezinkulu.

Lezi i-Celtiberian oppida (i-Numancia, i-Tiermes, i-Uxama, i-Clunia, i-Bilbilis, i-Contrebia Leukade, njll.) inezakhiwo zasemadolobheni ezihleliwe, ezinemigwaqo ehlelekile, izindlu ezinamathafa, futhi, ezimweni eziningi, izakhiwo zomphakathi ezihlaba umxhwele. Izivikelo zazo ziyamangalisa: izindonga ezinemibhoshongo, amasango acijile, kanye nemisele emikhulu efana ne-Contrebia Leukade, eqoshwe edwaleni futhi cishe ubude bayo bungama-700 metres, ububanzi obufika ku-9 metres, futhi ububanzi obungaba ngama-8 metres, edinga amashumi ezinkulungwane zama-cubic metres edwala akhishwe ngomsebenzi ohlanganyelwe.

Kulesi sigaba, okulandelayo kuba okuvamile: ukusetshenziswa kokubhala endaweni yaseCeltiberian, yize sazi ukuthi yaqala ngaphambi kokuba kuvele izinhlamvu zemali zokuqala. Ulimi lwaseCeltiberian lwabhalwa kusetshenziswa izindlela zokubhala zesi-Iberian, futhi kamuva, izinhlamvu zesiLatini. Sinemibhalo ebhalwe ngethusi (njengethusi laseLuzaga), ezintweni zobumba, etsheni, futhi ngaphezu kwakho konke izinganekwane zemali, lapho amagama ezindawo evela khona kanye nezijobelelo ezihlukile (-kom, -kos) eziphikisana no-sken wendawo yase-Iberia.

Lesi sikhathi futhi singesinye sezikhathi Izimpi zaseCeltiberian kanye nokubhujiswa kweNumantia Ngo-133 BC, kwenzeka isiqephu esaguqula idolobha lase-Arevaci laba uphawu lokumelana nokwanda kwamaRoma. Naphezu konya lokunqotshwa, ukwenziwa kwamaRoma kwaba kancane kancane: abaningi ababengama-oppida baguqulwa baba amadolobha aseRoma anezinga eliphakathi. umasipala, begcina inkumbulo yesikhathi sabo esidlule kodwa kakade sebehlanganiswe nezakhiwo zoMbuso.

Abantu abavelele kakhulu baseCeltiberian

Ngaphakathi kwalesi sithombe se-Celtiberian, amaqembu amaningana ezinhlanga avelele kokubili ngethonya lawo kwezombusazwe kanye nengcebo yolwazi esinalo ngawo. Nakuba imingcele eqondile yeqembu ngalinye iyisihloko sempikiswano engapheli, singachaza kabanzi izindawo zawo kanye nezici zawo ezihlukile.

I-Arevaci

I-Los I-Arevaci Cishe bangabantu baseCeltiberia abaziwayo kakhulu, ikakhulukazi ngendima yabo eziMpini zaseCeltiberia. UStrabo nabanye ababhali bakudala babaveza njengesizwe esinamandla kakhulu eCeltiberia, esasakazeke esifundeni esikhulu saseningizimu yeDuero.

Imizi yabo yayitholakala e- amagquma aphakeme, abiyelwe ngodonga oluqinilengezinye izikhathi ngebhande elilodwa, amabili, noma amathathu okuzivikela. I-Numancia, i-Uxama, i-Termes, ne-Clunia ziyizibonelo ezibonisa ikhono lazo lokuhlanganisa ukuzivikela kanye nokulawula okubonakalayo kwendawo ezungezile.

Babehileleke kakhulu ku- ukulima okusanhlamvu kanye nokulima imfuyo, nakuba njalo enengxenye yeqhawe elinamandla. Imibhalo iqokomisa ubunzima bezimpilo zabo, isimo sezulu esinzima, kanye nokuzonda kwabo ukufa embhedeni: inkazimulo yangempela yayilele ekuweni empini. Lo mqondo ubonakala kokubili emikhosini yabo yomngcwabo kanye nasedumeleni labo njengamasosha amahle kakhulu, akwazi ukuzihlela abe yizici ezihlukile njenge-"wedge" edumile (cuneus), esatshwa kakhulu amabutho esitha.

Ezindabeni zenkolo, ama-Arevaci ayehlonipha onkulunkulu baseCeltic abanjengo JulayiBehambisana nokukhanya, ilanga, kanye nemisebenzi yobukhosi, babekhulekela okhokho babo emihumeni nasemaweni aphakeme lapho babebeka khona iminikelo yezifungo nezithombe. Imibhalo yakamuva ikhuluma nangonkulunkulu abanjengo I-Endovellico noma "u-Elman", ehlanganiswe neqembu eliyinkimbinkimbi lapho imvelo (ilanga, inyanga, izintaba, imifula) yayidlala indima ebalulekile.

AmaPelendones

I-Los ama-pelendone Bahlala kakhulu ezindaweni eziphakeme ezizungeze imithombo yoMfula iDuero: enyakatho yeSoria, eningizimu-mpumalanga yeBurgos, futhi mhlawumbe ingxenye yeLa Rioja. Eningizimu babegudla i-Arevaci; enyakatho, amaBerones nama-Autrigones. Eminye imithombo iwabiza kanjalo. i-cerindones, futhi zivame ukubhekwa njengezihlobene nama-Arevaci nama-Numantines.

Ukuhlala kwayo kuhlanganiswe nalokho okubizwa ngokuthi ukuvubukula Isiko lezinqaba zaseSoria: izindawo zokuhlala eziseziqongweni zezintaba ezivikelwe kancane yizindonga ezilungele indawo, eziqiniswe ngezindonga zamatshe futhi ngokuvamile ngezinhlelo "zamatshe aqhutshwayo", amasimu angempela ezigxobo zamatshe ezazivimbela ukusondela kwesitha.

Izindonga zazingafinyelela amamitha amane noma amahlanu ukuphakama, zinezinhlangothi ezicishe zibe zifanayo kanye nokugcwala kwangaphakathi kwamatshe amancane nomhlabathi. Ngezinye izikhathi kwakunezelwa imibhoshongo nezinto zokhuni. Ngaphakathi, izindlu zazihlangana. izitshalo eziyindilinga nezingunxande, enezindonga zamatshe eziphansi lapho kwakhiwe khona izakhiwo ze-adobe nezinkuni, ngaphezulu kunezitshalo.

AmaPelendone ayeyizinto eziyisisekelo abalimi bezinkomo, abane-bronze metallurgy ethuthuke kakhulu kanye nemboni yensimbi ekhulayo kusukela ngekhulu lesi-4 BC. Babeqhuba ukushiswa kwezidumbu, umlotha ubekwa ezitsheni zobumba, futhi babehlanganyela nabanye abantu baseCeltic amasiko aphawulekayo njengenkolo "yamakhanda anqunyiwe" noma ukuvezwa kwamaqhawe afile ukuze adliwe yizinyoni ezidla inyama, ikakhulukazi amanqe, abhekwa njengabalamuleli bokuphila kwangemva kokufa.

enhle

I-Los muhle Bahlala kakhulu esigodini esingenhla saseJalón kanye nezindawo ezisemngceleni phakathi kweSoria neZaragoza, okungenzeka ukuthi zanda zaya kulokho manje okusentshonalanga yeTeruel. Indawo yabo yayiseduze neyaseTitos naseLusones, okudala ubunzima obukhulu ekuchazeni imingcele eqondile.

Baziwa kakhulu ngendima yabo ku- Izimpi zaseCeltiberian nangezinhlamvu zemali ezivela emadolobheni afana neNertóbriga noma, ngaphezu kwakho konke, I-Segeda (I-Sekaisa), okwakhuliswa kwendawo kanye nokwandiswa kwezindonga cishe ngo-154 BC kwakungenye yezinto ezabangela ngqo ingxabano neRoma.

Ngezinye izikhathi bavezwa njengabantu abangaphansi noma bahlobene eduze nomalume, mhlawumbe ebudlelwaneni namakhasimende. Igama labo liye lahlotshaniswa—hhayi ngaphandle kokungabaza—na Izisekelo zeCeltic noma nge-Gallic parallels (Belovaks)futhi kunoma yikuphi, zixhumene kakhulu ezinkundleni zokuxhumana zamaCeltiberian abhekene neRiphabhulikhi yaseRoma ngekhulu lesibili BC.

Titos

I-Los ithi Bangabantu abangabhalwanga kahle, abavame ukuvela behlangene namaBelos namaLusones. Batholakala endaweni engacacile isigodi esiphakathi saseJalón, eduze kwezindawo ezifana ne-Alhama de Aragón kanye namaMolina moors.

Siyazi ukuthi bahlanganyele kanye namaBelos nama-Arevaci ku- Impi Yesibili YamaCeltiberianBasayina izivumelwano noTiberius Sempronius Gracchus ngo-179 BC, njengengxenye yemizamo yamaRoma yokuzinzisa lesi sifunda ngezivumelwano. Ngemva kokubhujiswa kweNumantia, umkhondo wabo uyanyamalala emithonjeni, okuphakamisa ukuhlanganiswa okusheshayo kwezinhlaka ezintsha zezepolitiki nezokuphatha.

AmaLusone

I-Los ama-lusone Zazitholakala kakhulu e- iTajuña engenhla kanye nezindawo eziseduze nomthombo wemifula iTagus ne-Ebro, isakazeke phakathi kwenyakatho-mpumalanga yeGuadalajara nengxenye yeZaragoza. Ababhali abafana noStrabo bawabeka ngqo lapho kuvela khona le mifula, okubonisa indawo yawo ebalulekile phakathi kweMeseta nesigodi sase-Ebro.

Phakathi kwamadolobha ayo kukhona iLutia (evame ukuhunyushwa njengenhloko-dolobha), iBursau (ngezinye izikhathi ehlotshaniswa neBorja), iTuriasu (iTarazona), kanye neCarabis. Umnotho wayo uhlanganise i- ukulima okusanhlamvu endaweni evundile nemboni yemfuyo enamandla, eyayiphakela imboni yendwangu ethakazelisayo (edumile isagum noma ingubo yoboya, eyayize isebenze njengesipho).

Izitsha zalo zobumba ziphawuleka ngokuthi ama-motifs apendiwe ngamabhande, iziyingi kanye nama-semicirclesBabenezinsizakusebenza zensimbi ezibalulekile: igolide esifundeni saseJalón, insimbi ezintabeni zaseMoncayo, kanye nomthofu kanye nethusi kwezinye izintaba eziseduze. UPliny Omdala udumisa ngokukhethekile izikhali zensimbi ezenziwe kulesi sifunda, ezihambisana nodumo olusakazekile lwezindawo zokusebenzela zensimbi zaseCeltiberian.

Ulimi, ukubhala kanye nendawo yaseCeltic eseningizimu

Isayensi yezilimi iqinisekisa okucacile ukuhlukaniswa kweNhlonhlo yase-Iberia kube yizindawo ezimbili ezinkuluKwakukhona imibhalo emibili eyinhloko: eyodwa yesi-Iberia (iMedithera) kanti enye yesiCeltic (ephakathi nezwe kanye nasenyakatho-ntshonalanga). Ukubhala kwabantu bomdabu kwakusetshenziswa kakhulu eNhlonhlweni yase-Iberia kuphela, futhi ngaphakathi kombuso wamaCeltic, emikhakheni yamaCeltic kanye namaLusitani; ezinye izindawo zasentshonalanga azizange zisebenzise izinhlelo zazo zokubhala kwaze kwaba yilapho kufika izinhlamvu zesiLatini.

I-Toponymy kanye ne-anthroponyms zivumela ukuhlonza izindawo ezinethonya elinamandla lase-Indo-European (ezinamagama amaningi aphela ngo--briga, isibonelo) ngokungafani namanye anephrofayili ecacile yase-Iberia (-iscer, -beles). Ukusatshalaliswa kwezinganekwane zemali ezinezijobelelo -kom kanye no-kos endaweni yaseCeltiberia, ngokungafani no--sken wase-Iberia, kuqinisa lo mugqa ohlukanisayo.

Iningi labantu baseCeltic ligcwele endaweni yaseCeltic peninsula. ama-anthroponyms ohlobo lwe-Ambatusokuhlobene ngokwemvelaphi namakhasimende (uhlelo lokuthembela komuntu siqu oluvame kakhulu emiphakathini yamaqhawe asebukhosini). Lokhu kuyasebenza naku i-tesserae yokungenisa izihambi, izingcezu ezincane zethusi ezinemibhalo eqopha izivumelwano zokusizana phakathi kwabantu ngabanye, imindeni noma amadolobha, amaningi kakhulu eCeltiberia yenuzi nasezindaweni ezizungezile.

Izindawo zokuhlala kanye nezakhiwo: izinqaba zezintaba, i-vici kanye ne-oppida

AmaCeltiberiya ahlelwa ngendlela efanayo inethiwekhi yezindawo zokuhlala ezinezinga elihlukahlukene, okubizwa ngokuthi imithombo yasendulo amadolobha o amaphoyisa, abahlali, vici y i-castellaIsayensi yemivubukulo ihumusha lokhu kube yizifundazwe zamadolobha, izikhungo zezombusazwe zesifunda, izindawo zokuhlala ezincane, kanye nezinqaba zamagquma eziqinile.

I-Las amadolobha Kwakuyizikhungo zasemadolobheni ezinezinga elithile lobunzima bangaphakathi kanye nendawo yezolimo exhomeke kuyo. abahlali Babesebenza njengamayunithi ezombusazwe omdabu, noma ngabe isikhungo sedolobha sichazwe ngokucacile noma cha. vici y i-castella Zazihambisana nezindawo ezincane ezisezintabeni noma ezindaweni eziphakeme, ezivamile endaweni yaseCeltiberian.

Ngokuvamile, izindawo zokuhlala zazitholakala e- amaphuzu aphezulu futhi abonakala kakhuluLezi zindawo zokuhlala zaqiniswa ngezindonga ezazivumelana nokungahambi kahle kwendawo. Ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, kwanezelwa imibhoshongo eyisikwele noma eyindilinga, ikakhulukazi emasangweni, futhi kwezinye izimo, kwambiwa imisele phambi kodonga. Ngesikhathi seNkathi Yesibili Yensimbi, ukuhlela amadolobha okunomgwaqo ophakathi noma i-plaza kwasabalala, izindlu ezakhiwe zaya ngaphandle zakha ibhande eliqhubekayo, kanye nezinhlelo zokuzivikela eziyinkimbinkimbi (izindonga ezinezingqimba, amasimu amatshe aqondile, njll.).

Izindlu zaseCeltiberian uhlelo lwephansi oluyindilinga olungaba ngu-40-50 m²Izindonga ziphakama kusukela epulangweni lamatshe, elinezingxenye ezingaphezulu ze-adobe noma zomhlabathi onama-rammed kanye nesakhiwo sangaphakathi sezinsika zokhuni ezisekela uphahla olulodwa noma oluphindwe kabili olufulelwe ngotshani. Ingaphakathi livame ukuhlukaniswa libe yizikhala ezintathu: i-vestibule ekhanyayo yemisebenzi yansuku zonke (ukuluka, ukugaya), igumbi elikhulu elineziko eliphakathi namabhentshi okudlela nokulala, kanye negumbi elingemuva elisetshenziswa njengendawo yokugcina ukudla kanye neshede lamathuluzi.

Kwezinye izimo ziyabhalwa phansi izibaya noma izindawo zokugcina ezihlanganisiwe ezimbiwe ngaphansi komhlaba amakamelo angaphambili, ahloselwe ukugcina okusanhlamvu, iwayini, noma eminye imikhiqizo. Lolu hlobo lokwakha lubonisa indlela yokuphila ezinzile ngokwezolimo nemfuyo, enobudlelwano obuqinile bomphakathi kanye nokukhathazeka okucacile ngokuzivikela.

Ezomnotho kanye nemisebenzi yezandla: kusukela kokusanhlamvu kuya kokuyina okuvela eMoncayo

Isisekelo sezomnotho sezwe lamaCeltiberia sasisekelwe ku- inhlanganisela yezolimo, ukulima imfuyo, ukumbiwa kwezimayini, i-metallurgy, ukuzingela kanye nokuqoqaAsibhekene nomphakathi ompofu nongabalulekile, njengoba abanye ababhali baseRoma bakwenza ngendlela ehlekisayo, kodwa sibhekene nemiphakathi ekwazi ukusebenzisa kahle izinsiza ezingelula ukuzithola.

Ezolimo zazigxile kakhulu okusanhlamvu okusemhlabathini owomile, ikakhulukazi ukolweni nebhaliLezi zitshalo zanezelwa ngemifino, izihlahla zezithelo, kanye nezivini lapho isimo sezulu sivuma khona. Umsebenzi wenziwa ngamageja ahlanganyelwe ngensimbi adonswa yizinkabi, amasikela okuvuna, kanye nezimfoloko zokubhula, futhi waqedwa ngokuqoqwa kwezithelo zasendle ezifana nama-acorn nama-walnut.

Ukufuya imfuyo kwakuyinsika yangempela yengcebo yamaCeltic: izimvu nezimbuzi (ngoboya nobisi), izinkomo (ukudonswa, ubisi, isikhumba) futhi, ngezinga elincane, izingulubeIzinkabi, izimbongolo, iminyuzi, namahhashi kwakusetshenziswa ukuthutha, ukulima, kanye nempi. Ukuzingela izinyamazane, izinyamazane ezincane, izingulube zasendle, onogwaja, onogwaja, amabhere, noma izimpisi kwakwengeza ekudleni futhi kwakunikeza uboya nezimpawu zodumo.

Emkhakheni wezimayini, izintaba zeSistimu yase-Iberia zazinikeza isiliva, umthofu, ithusi, futhi ngaphezu kwakho konke, insimbiLokhu kuthuthukiswa kokugcina kwaholela ekusetshenzisweni kwensimbi okusezingeni eliphezulu. Ama-workshop aseCeltiberia akhiqiza izikele, amageja, amasikela, imimese, amakhanda emikhonto, izinkemba, imimese, nezihlangu, kanye nemihlobiso yethusi (ama-fibulae, ama-brooche, amasongo, ama-pectoral, ama-plaque ahlotshisiwe). Ababhali abanjengoMartial noDiodorus bancoma ikhwalithi yale misebenzi. insimbi evela eMoncayo kanye nesimo sezulu esitholakala emifuleni efana neJalón.

Ngokusho kwemithombo, izinkemba zaseCeltiberian zakhiwa ngokuhlanganiswa ukushintshana kokushaywa okubandayo nokushisayoLokhu kwaholela ezinhlamvini ezinezindawo ezintathu: izindawo ezimbili eziqinile kanye nomongo othambile kancane, okuqinisekisa ukuguquguquka nokumelana. UPhilo noDiodorus bachaza ukuhlolwa kwekhwalithi okumangalisayo: ukugoba inhlamvu kuze kube yilapho ithinta amahlombe omphathi bese uyivumela ukuthi ibuyele endaweni yayo yokuqala ngaphandle kokuguquka.

Umphakathi, amandla, kanye nobudlelwano bomuntu siqu

Umphakathi waseCeltiberian washintsha kusukela enhlanganweni esekelwe ku- imindeni nezizwe ezakhiweni eziyinkimbinkimbi kakhulu, ikakhulukazi ngokuthuthukiswa kwamadolobha. Ezigabeni zokuqala, ubumnene Imindeni yayihlanganisa abantu abahlobene ababehlanganyela izindawo, amalungelo, imisebenzi kanye nemikhuba yamasiko. abantu (izizwe) kungaba amaqembu aphezulu akha imindeni eminingana.

Imikhakha enelungelo elikhulu kwakuyi- amaqhawe, izifundiswa zezombusazwe zangempela obhekene nokuvikela iqembu kanye nokulawula izinsizakusebenza zamasu. Ubudlelwano phakathi kwabantu ngabanye kanye naphakathi kwemindeni babulawulwa ngezikhungo ezifana ne- isibhedlela (isivumelwano sokungenisa izihambi) noma ukuzinikela (isibopho sokwethembeka komuntu siqu, lapho iqhawe "lalifunga" khona enduneni, kuze kube sekufeni).

Ngokuhlanganiswa kwamadolobha, amandla ezepolitiki ahlelwa ngendlela ezungeze imihlangano yabadala (abadala), ababemele igunya lendabuko, kanye nemihlangano yentsha (izinyunyana), egxile kakhulu ezenzweni zempi. Abantu abanjengomantshi, abamemezeli noma amanxusa aphethe ukuxoxisana ngokuthula, kanye nabaholi bezempi abakhethwe ezimweni zempi bayavela.

Ngokwami, amaCeltiberiya ayenomfazi oyedwa futhi, ngokusho kweminye imibhalo, Kwaba ngabesifazane abakhetha umyenibekhetha abanesibindi kakhulu. Babenendima ebalulekile: bazuza njengefa, basebenza ekubumbeni nasekulukeni, bahlanganyela ekulimeni imfuyo, futhi babengangenela ngisho nasekulweni lapho isimo sifuna kanjalo.

Inkolo kanye nemikhuba yomngcwabo

Izinkolelo zenkolo zamaCeltiberiya zakhiwe ngendlela ehambisana onkulunkulu abahlobene nemvelo, umjikelezo wokuphila, kanye nempiNgaphezu kweLug, esesishiwo kakade, sithola izinkomba kuBelenos, Cernunnos, Epona, Ayron noma amaMatres, phakathi kwabanye onkulunkulu abane-resonances yaseNtshonalanga yamaCeltic, kanye nonkulunkulu bendawo abahlotshaniswa nezintaba, iziphethu noma amahlathi.

UStrabo ukhuluma nge "ubunkulunkulu obungenagama" Babeyikhulekela ngokusina phambi kwezindlu zabo ngobusuku benyanga egcwele, mhlawumbe ukubonakaliswa kwenyanga noma kwendawo yonke. Izindawo zokukhulekela zaziyizindawo zemvelo ngokuyinhloko: imihume, amatshe ahlukile, imithombo, nezihlahla ezingcwele. Azikho amathempeli omdabu amakhulu aziwayo kusukela kulesi sikhathi; izakhiwo zenkolo zaqala ukuvelela ngesikhathi samaRoma.

Ngokuphathelene nemikhosi yokufa, imithombo yasendulo ichaza isiko lomngcwabo ophindwe kabili Phakathi kwabantu baseCeltiberia, kwakukhona imikhuba emibili eyinhloko: ngakolunye uhlangothi, ukushiswa kwalabo abafa ngenxa yokugula noma izimbangela zemvelo; ngakolunye uhlangothi, ukudalulwa kwamaqhawe awile empini ukuze imizimba yawo idliwe yizinkawu.

La umbukiso wezidumbu Yayinengxenye eqinile yenkolo: inqe, isilwane esingcwele, yayisebenza njenge-psychopomp, ithwala umphefumulo weqhawe ngqo konkulunkulu basezulwini. Lo mkhosi wawubhekwa njengohlanzekile kunokushisa isidumbu ngoba wawugwema ukuthintana nomhlaba. USilius Italicus no-Aelian babhala ukulandisa ngale mikhuba phakathi kwamaCeltiberian namaVaccaei.

La ukushiswa Nokho, kwakuyisiko elivamile. Isidumbu sabekwa emlilweni (i-ustrinumKanye nempahla yabo ethuneni; ngemva kokushiswa kwesidumbu, umlotha nezingcezu zamathambo ezikhethiwe zaziqoqwa ngokucophelela bese zifakwa emgodini noma esitsheni sobumba. Eceleni kwaso kwakubekwe izikhali, imihlobiso, izitsha, futhi ngezinye izikhathi izinsalela zezilwane ezincane, ezimelela isabelo somufi edilini lomngcwabo.

Kuyisici esibalulekile kakhulu emathuneni aseCeltiberian ukukhubaza ngamabomu izikhali nezinto Phakathi kwezinto ezithuneni: izinkemba ezigobile, amaphuzu asontekile, ama-fibulae aphukile. Lokhu "kufa kwesiko" kwale nto kwakuhloswe ukuqinisekisa ukuthi iyaqhubeka ihamba nofile ngokomoya ekuphileni kwangemva kokufa, iphawula ubuwena babo kanye nesikhundla sabo. Ama-cenotaph nawo ayaziwa, amathuna angokomfanekiso lapho isilwane sithatha khona indawo yesidumbu lapho singenakutholakala khona.

Ibutho, amahhashi kanye nezikhali

AmaCeltiberiya athuthukise ikhono elimangalisayo lempi, kokubili kwabahamba ngezinyawo kanye nabamahhashiAmahhashi ayengaba phakathi kuka-20 no-25% wamandla, okuyiphesenti eliphakeme kakhulu kunelamaRoma. Amahhashi ayenedumela elikhulu futhi ayedumile ngejubane lawo kanye nokushesha kwawo, kanye nesibindi samahhashi awo, aqeqeshwe ukukhuphuka izintaba eziphakeme, ukuma ngokuzumayo, noma ngisho nokuguqa lapho kudingeka.

Ekulweni bahlanganisa amahhashi kanye namasosha ahamba ngezinyawo ngendlela eguquguqukayo, besebenzisa amaqhinga anjengokuthi NgizoncintisanaLeli qhinga lalihilela ukuzenza sengathi uyahoxa ukuze uyenge isitha ukuba sihlasele bese siphenduka ngokushesha ukuze sihlasele lapho isitha singahlelekile. Ngokombono wamaRoma, njengoba ayejwayele ukwakheka okuqinile, la maqhinga ayechazwa ngokuthi “ukungaziphathi kahle,” kodwa ayesebenza kahle kakhulu ezindaweni ezimagebhugebhu.

Izikhali zokuhlasela zahlukahluka ngokuhamba kwesikhathi. Ezigabeni zokuqala, okulandelayo kwakuba khona: imikhonto nemikhonto, eduze ne i-soliferrum (isikhali sensimbi esiqinile) nezinkemba eziqondile eziboshwe nge-antenna. Kamuva kwafika amathonya ase-Iberia, njenge- i-falcatafuthi izinkemba zohlobo lwe-La Tène ezinezinsika ezinde zasakazeka kabanzi, zivame ukungeniswa noma zilungiswe endaweni. Kusukela ngekhulu lesi-3 BC kuqhubeke, zazivame kakhulu. izinkemba ezinezithende ezinkulu, i-Celtiberian ngempela, enesibambo esiphela kudiski kanye nokuqina okuphakathi.

Phakathi kwezikhali ezidubulayo, okulandelayo kuyagqama: i-falaricaKuchazwa nguLivy: uhlobo lomkhonto osindayo onomphini we-fir kanye nephuzu elide lensimbi eliyisikwele elimbozwe ngentambo yokudonswa eboshwe nge-pitch, elaliphonswa ngenkathi livutha. Uma lingawugwazi umzimba wesitha, okungenani lalizosiphoqa ukuba silahle isihlangu saso, esasishiswa amalangabi. Lolu hlobo lwesikhali lwalusetshenziswa kakhulu ekuvikeleni amadolobha anjengeSaguntum.

Ngokuphathelene nokuvikelwa, amasosha ahamba ngezinyawo alula athwele izihlangu eziyindilinga ( caetra ) cishe ububanzi obungamasentimitha angu-50, benziwe ngokhuni noma ngesikhumba, kuyilapho ibutho elisindayo elihamba ngezinyawo lalisebenzisa izihlangu ezigobile eziphefumulelwe yi-Iberia (I-ScutariiIzigqoko zokuzivikela zazivame ukwenziwa ngesikhumba esiqinisiwe, zinezigqoko zethusi ezihlotshiswe kahle ezazigcinelwe amakhosi. Izindwangu zokugqoka (zelineni noma izindwangu ezilukiwe) zazivamile, kuyilapho izembatho zempi ezibiza kakhulu noma ezisezingeni eliphezulu zilotshwe kakhulu ezimweni zobungcweti. amadiski esifuba ethusi Kwakuyindlela evamile yokuvikela, evame kakhulu ezindaweni zokungcwaba zaseCeltiberian.

Lolu hlu lwezici—ulimi lwesiCeltic, uhlelo lwalo lokubhala, ukuhlela amadolobha okuqinisiwe, ubukhosi bamaqhawe, ubuchwepheshe bensimbi obuthuthukisiwe, kanye nobunikazi obuqinile benkolo—kwenza isiko lamaCeltic enye yezindawo zokucwaninga ezinhle kakhulu zokuqonda ukuthi amasiko aseCeltic nase-Iberia ahlangana futhi aguquke kanjani ngaphakathi kwenhlonhlo. Indawo yayo engaphandle maqondana nemisinga emikhulu yaseCentral Europe yaseHallstatt naseLa Tène, kanye nethonya elikhulu lomhlaba waseMedithera wase-Iberia, kuchaza ukuthi kungani ubuso bayo bufana kancane nobamaCelt ezwekazi, bugcina isimo sawo sokuthi isayensi yemivubukulo kanye ne-historiography iyaqhubeka nokuthuthukisa unyaka nonyaka.